2009. "Numerical and experimental investigation of DNAPL removal mechanisms in a layered porous medium by means of soil vapor extraction." Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 109(1-4):1-13. doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2009.07.001 Abstract The purpose of this work is to identify the mechanisms that govern the removal of carbon tetrachloride (CT) during soil vapor extraction (SVE) by comparing multiphase flow simulations with a detailed data set from a well-defined two-dimensional flow cell experiment. The flow cell was packed with two sandy soils including an embedded fine-grained sand layer. Gas concentrations at the outlet of the flow cell and 15 sampling ports inside the flow cell were measured during SVE. A dual-energy gamma radiation system was used to measure an initial NAPL saturation profile in a fine-grained sand layer. Imaging result from a dual-energy gamma radiation system with dyed CT mark along CT migration was used to construct the distribution of initial NAPL saturation in the flow cell for input to numerical simulations. Gas concentration results and photographs during SVE were compared to simulation results using a continuum-based multiphase flow simulator, STOMP (Subsurface Transport Over Multiple Phases). The measured effluent gas concentration decreased quickly at first, and then started to decrease gradually, resulting in long-term tailing. CT mass was removed quickly in coarse sand, followed by a slow removal from the fine-grained sand layer. An analytical solution for a one-dimensional advection and first-order volatilization model matched the tailing well with two fitting parameters. However, given detailed knowledge of the permeability field and initial NAPL distribution, we can predict the tailing and gas concentration profiles at sampling ports using equilibrium NAPL volatilization. NAPL flow occurs in the presence of free NAPL, and must be accounted for to accurately predict NAPL removal during the SVE experiment. The model prediction was accurate within the uncertainty of the measured or literature derived parameters (i.e., dispersivity and soil parameters). This study provides insights into the physical mechanisms of NAPL removal from a low permeability zone, and use of the local equilibrium assumption for NAPL volatilization during SVE. In addition, this study demonstrates that lack of detailed information regarding NAPL distribution and heterogeneity pattern lead overall NAPL removal to a kinetically controlled system at a 2-D flow cell scale.
2009. "An automated tool for three types of saturated hydraulic conductivity laboratory measurements." Soil Science Society of America Journal 73(2):466-470. Abstract Acquisition of porous medium hydraulic conductivity in the laboratory is usually time-consuming and costly because of the manual labor associated with the currently available techniques. Lately, there has been increased interest in automating hydraulic conductivity laboratory techniques to reduce analysis time and improve data consistency. A new apparatus is presented that is able to determine hydraulic conductivity values with the falling head, constant head, and constant flux methods in an automated fashion. In addition, the columns are designed forcing water to flow in a nominally one-dimensional manner throughout the porous medium. In this paper, hydraulic conductivity data for standard laboratory sands are presented and compared to results obtained using a standard Tempe cell configuration. Hydraulic conductivity values obtained with the new tool for the laboratory sands are consistent with literature data. For highly permeable sands, the newly obtained hydraulic conductivity values are considerable larger then values acquired using a Tempe cell configuration. The lower conductivity values for the Tempe Cell configuration are primarily the result of insufficient spreading of water in the inlet and outlet reservoirs.
2009. "Desiccation of unsaturated porous media: Intermediate-scale experiments and numerical simulation." Vadose Zone Journal 8(3):643-650. Abstract Soil desiccation (drying) is recognized as a potentially robust vadose zone remediation process involving water evaporation induced by air injection and extraction. Desiccation has the potential to immobilize contaminants and could potentially improve access for other gas-phase treatments by reducing water saturation and therefore increasing sediment gas-phase permeability. Before this technology could be deployed in the field, concerns related to energy limitations, osmotic effects, and potential contaminant remobilization after rewetting need to be addressed. A series of detailed wedge-shaped, intermediate-scale laboratory experiments in unsaturated homogeneous and simple heterogeneous systems was conducted to improve the understanding of the impact of energy balance issues on soil desiccation. The experiments were simulated with the multifluid flow simulator STOMP, using independently obtained hydraulic and thermal porous medium properties. In all the experiments, the injection of dry air proved to be an effective means for removing essentially all moisture from the test media. Evaporative cooling was observed which generally decreased with increased distance from the gas inlet chamber. Observations of temperature in fine-grained sands in the heterogeneous systems show two local temperature minima associated with the cooling. The first one occurs because of evaporation in the adjacent medium-grained sand whereas the second minimum is attributed to evaporative cooling in the fine-grained sand itself. Results of the laboratory tests were simulated accurately when thermal properties of the flow cell walls and insulation material were taken into account, indicating that the proper physics were incorporated into the simulator.
2008. "Enhanced Remedial Amendment Delivery through Fluid Viscosity Modifications: Experiments and numerical simulations." Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 101(1-4):29-41. doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2008.07.007 Abstract Abstract Heterogeneity is often encountered in subsurface contamination characterization and remediation. Low-permeability zones are typically bypassed when remedial fluids are injected into subsurface heterogeneous aquifer systems. Therefore, contaminants in the bypassed areas may not be contacted by the amendments in the remedial fluid, which may significantly prolong the remediation operations. Laboratory experiments and numerical studies have been conducted to develop the Mobility-Controlled Flood (MCF) technology for subsurface remediation and to demonstrate the capability of this technology in enhancing the remedial amendments delivery to the lower permeability zones in heterogeneous systems. Xanthan gum, a bio-polymer, was used to modify the viscosity of the amendment-containing remedial solutions. Sodium mono-phosphate and surfactant were the remedial amendment used in this work. The enhanced delivery of the amendments was demonstrated in two-dimensional (2-D) flow cell experiments, packed with heterogeneous systems. The impact of polymer concentration, fluid injection rate, and permeability contract in the heterogeneous systems has been studied. The Subsurface Transport over Multiple Phases (STOMP) simulator was modified to include polymer-induced shear thinning effects. Shear rates of polymer solutions were computed from pore-water velocities using a relationship proposed in the literature. Viscosity data were subsequently obtained from empirical viscosity-shear rate relationships derived from laboratory data. The experimental and simulation results clearly show that the MCF technology is capable of enhancing the delivery of remedial amendments to subsurface lower permeability zones. The enhanced delivery significantly improved the NAPL removal from these zones and the sweeping efficiency on a heterogeneous system was remarkably increased when a polymer fluid was applied. MCF technology is also able to stabilize the fluid displacing front when there is a density difference between the fluids. The modified STOMP simulator was able to predict the experimental observed fluid displacing behavior. The simulator may be used to predict the subsurface remediation performance when a shear thinning fluid is used to remediate a heterogeneous system.
2007. "Zero-valent Iron Emplacement in Permeable Porous Media Using Polymer Additions." Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation 27(1):122-130. Abstract At the Hanford Site in Washington, an extensive In Situ Redox Manipulation (ISRM) permeable reactive barrier was installed to prevent chromate from reaching the Columbia River. However, chromium has been detected in several wells, indicating a premature loss of the reductive capacity in the aquifer. One possible cause for premature chromate breakthrough is associated with the presence of high-permeability zones in the aquifer. The potential emplacement of zero-valent iron (Fe0) into high-permeability Hanford sediments to enhance the barrier’s reductive capacity using shear-thinning fluids containing polymers was investigated in three-dimensional wedge-shaped aquifer models. Porous media were packed in the wedge-shaped flow cell to create either a heterogeneous layered system with a high-permeability zone between two low-permeability zones or a high-permeability channel surrounded by low-permeability materials. The injection flow rate, polymer type, polymer concentration, and injected pore volumes were determined based on preliminary short- and long-column experiments. The flow cell experiments indicated that iron concentration enhancements of at least 0.6% (w/w) could be obtained using moderate flow rates and injection of 30 pore volumes. The aqueous pressure increased by a maximum of 25 KPa during infiltration, but a decrease in permeability was not observed. Under optimal conditions, the 0.6% amended Fe0 concentration would provide approximately 20 times the average reductive capacity that is provided by the dithionite-reduced Fe (II) in the ISRM barrier.
2007. "Three-Dimensional Multifluid Flow and Transport at the Brooklawn Site near Baton Rouge, LA: A Case Study." Soil & Sediment Contamination 16(2):109-141. Abstract Disposal quantities of organic wastes at the Brooklawn Site in Louisiana are suspected to equal nearly 160 Ktons, making this site one of the most contaminated DNAPL sites in the world. Remedial activities at the site include groundwater and dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) extraction from recovery wells. DNAPL recovery has markedly declined in recent years, with many of the peripheral wells showing negligible recovery of organic liquids. Three-dimensional simulations of DNAPL movement in the subsurface were conducted using the STOMP simulator, including a new coupled well model. The objectives of this modeling effort were to (1) determine the fate and transport of infiltrated DNAPL, and (2) measure the effects of active recovery through DNAPL pumping. A detailed three-dimensional geologic model of the Brooklawn primary DNAPL disposal area was developed and used as the framework for DNAPL simulations. Additionally, site-specific data were obtained to obtain the most important hydraulic properties of the subsurface related to DNAPL movement and formation of entrapped DNAPL in the laboratory. Besides a simulation using the best available subsurface information, several sensitivity simulations were conducted to assess the effects on DNAPL migration. These simulations include DNAPL pumping, well screen extension, an alternative geology, increased DNAPL density, lower DNAPL viscosity, and more-permeable sand and silt deposits. Results of the simulations were compared to field data that define the extent of DNAPL movement based on where DNAPL has been extracted in the site recovery wells. The model simulations predict no significant reduction in the extent of the DNAPL as a result of pumping. Pumping returns diminish rapidly due to the limited radius of influence of the wells and movement of the DNAPL out of the zone of influence of the wells with a maximum radius of influence of about 6 m. The numerical analysis also demonstrates that it is impractical to extend existing wells or install new wells to retrieve enough DNAPL to affect the overall extent of DNAPL movement.
2007. "A Review of Multidimensional, Multifluid Intermediate-scale Experiments: Flow Behavior, Saturation Imaging, and Tracer Detection and Quantification ." Vadose Zone Journal 6(3):610-637. doi:10.2136/vzj2006.0178 Abstract A review is presented of original multidimensional, intermediate-scale experiments involving non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) flow behavior, imaging, and detection/quantification with solute tracers. In a companion paper (Oostrom, M., J.H. Dane, and T.W. Wietsma. 2006. A review of multidimensional, multifluid intermediate-scale experiments: Nonaqueous phase dissolution and enhanced remediation. Vadose Zone Journal 5:570-598) experiments related to aqueous dissolution and enhanced remediation were discussed. The experiments investigating flow behavior include infiltration and redistribution experiments with both light and dense NAPLs in homogeneous and heterogeneous porous medium systems. The techniques used for NAPL saturation mapping for intermediate-scale experiments include photon-attenuation methods such as gamma and X-ray techniques, and photographic methods such as the light reflection, light transmission, and multispectral image analysis techniques. Solute tracer methods used for detection and quantification of NAPL in the subsurface are primarily limited to variations of techniques comparing the behavior of conservative and partitioning tracers. Besides a discussion of the experimental efforts, recommendations for future research at this laboratory scale are provided.
2007. "An experimental investigation of nitrogen gas produced during denitrification." Ground Water 45(4):461-467. Abstract In Situ denitrification relies on the activity of indegenous or introduced denitrifying microorganisms to reduce nitrate to N2 gas. In this study, we investigated the fate of N2 gas produced during denitrification in an intermediate-scale flow cell containing packed sediments. Denitrification was stimulated by a series of nitrate and ethanol additions. Results show limited reduction of hydraulic conductivity in the aquifer material.
2006. "Behavior of a Viscous LNAPL under Variable Water Table Conditions." Soil & Sediment Contamination 15(6):543 - 564 . doi:10.1080/15320380600958976 Abstract An intermediate-scale experiment in a 1.02-m-long, 0.75-m-high, and 0.05-m-wide flow cell was conducted to investigate the behavior of a viscous LNAPL under variable water table conditions. Two viscous LNAPL volumes (0.4 L) were released, one week apart, from a small source zone on top of the flow cell into a partly saturated, homogenously packed porous medium. Following a redistribution period of 30 days after the second release, the water table was increased 0.5 m in 50 minutes. After the water table rise, viscous LNAPL behavior was monitored for an additional 45 days. Fluid saturation scans were obtained periodically with a fully automated dual-energy gamma radiation system. Results show that both spills follow similar paths downwards. Within two hours after the first LNAPL arrival, the capillary fringe was reduced across the cell by approximately 0.04 m (22%). This reduction is directly related to the decrease in the air-water surface tension from 0.072 to 0.057 N/m. LNAPL drainage from the unsaturated zone was relatively slow and a considerable residual LNAPL saturation was observed after 30 days of drainage. Most of the mobile LNAPL moved into the capillary fringe during this period. After a rapid 0.5 m water table rise, the LNAPL moved up in a delayed fashion. The LNAPL used the same path upwards as it used coming down during the infiltration phase. After 45 days, the LNAPL has moved up only approximately 0.2 m. Since the LNAPL has only moved up a limited amount, nonwetting fluid entrapment was limited. The experiment was simulated using the STOMP multifluid flow simulator, which includes entrapped and residual LNAPL saturation formation. A comparison indicates that the simulator is able to predict the observed phenomena well, including residual saturation formation in the vadose zone, and limited upward LNAPL movement after the water table rise. The results of this experiment show that viscous mobile LNAPL, subject to variable water table conditions, does not necessarily float on the water table and may not appear in an observation well.
2006. "A Review of Multidimensional, Multifluid Intermediate-scale Experiments: Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Dissolution and Enhanced Remediation." Vadose Zone Journal 5:570-598. doi:10.2136/vzj2005.0125 Abstract A review is presented of original multidimensional, intermediate-scale experiments involving nonaqueous phase liquids. The experimental approach at this scale can be viewed as an important intermediary between column studies and field trials. The primary advantage of intermediate-scale flow cell experiments is that field-scale processes can be simulated under controlled conditions. The experiments are frequently conducted to provide data sets to test and verify numerical and analytical flow and transport models. The controlled setting and laboratory instrumentation reduces the uncertainty in parameter estimation, allowing comparisons between simulation and experimental results to focus on flow and transport processes. A total of about 120 original contributions were identified and reviewed. Depending on the main topic of NAPL experimental research, the papers were divided into the following sections: (1) Dissolution, (2) Enhanced Remediation, (3) Flow behavior, (4) Quantification, and, (5) Imaging. In this paper, the categories Dissolution and Enhanced Remediation are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided. In a companion paper, experimental work related to the other three categories is reviewed. The Dissolution category includes experiments in which NAPL removal occurs due to water flushing. The Enhanced Remediation section contains experimental contributions investigating surfactant flushing, alcohol flushing, surfactant/alcohol combinations, dense brine barrier strategies, oil recovery through pumping, soil vapor extraction, air sparging, steam injection, bioremediation, and other techniques.
2005. "Removal of Carbon Tetrachloride from a Layered Porous Medium by Means of Soil Vapor Extraction Enhanced by Desiccation and Water Table Reduction." Vadose Zone Journal 4(4):1170-1182. doi:10.2136/vzj2004.0173 Abstract A two-dimensional flow cell experiment was conducted to study the removal of the carbon tetrachloride component of a DNAPL mixture from a layered porous medium through soil vapor extraction (SVE) with moist and dry air. A dual-energy gamma radiation system was used at various times to non-intrusively determine fluid saturations. The mixture, which contained the volatile organic carbon tetrachloride, mimics the DNAPL disposed at the Hanford Site in Washington State. The flow cell, which is 100 cm long, 75 cm high and 5.5 cm wide, was packed with two sloped coarse sand and two sloped silt layers in an otherwise uniform matrix of medium-grained sand. A V-shaped fine sand layer was placed at the bottom of the flow cell to prevent DNAPL from exiting the flow cell. The water table was located 2 cm from the bottom, creating variably saturated conditions. A 500-mL spill was introduced at the top of the flow cell from a small source area. It was observed that the DNAPL largely by-passed the silt layers but easily moved into the coarse sand layers. Residual DNAPL was formed in the medium-grained sand matrix. The DNAPL caused a distinct reduction of the capillary fringe. Most of the DNAPL ended up in a pool on top of the V-shaped fine sand. Through four treatments with moist air soil vapor extraction, most residual carbon tetrachloride was removed from the medium-grained matrix and the coarse sand layers. However, soil vapor extraction with moist air was not able to remove the carbon tetrachloride from the silt layers and the pool. Through a water table reduction and subsequent soil vapor extraction with dry air, the carbon tetrachloride in the silt layers and the pool was effectively removed. Based on gamma measurements and carbon tetrachloride vapor concentration data, it was estimated that after the final remediation treatment, almost 90% of the total mass was removed.
2005. "Removal of carbon tetrachloride from a layered porous medium by means of soil vapor extraction enhanced by desiccation and water table reduction." Vadose Zone Journal 4:1170-1182. doi:10.2136/vzj2004.0173 Abstract A two-dimensional flow cell experiment was conducted to study the removal of the carbon tetrachloride component of a DNAPL mixture from a layered porous medium through soil vapor extraction (SVE) with moist and dry air. A dual-energy gamma radiation system was used at various times to non-intrusively determine fluid saturations. The mixture, which contained the volatile organic carbon tetrachloride, mimics the DNAPL disposed at the Hanford Site in Washington State. The flow cell, which is 100 cm long, 75 cm high and 5.5 cm wide, was packed with two sloped coarse sand and two sloped silt layers in an otherwise uniform matrix of medium-grained sand. A V-shaped fine sand layer was placed at the bottom of the flow cell to prevent DNAPL from exiting the flow cell. The water table was located 2 cm from the bottom, creating variably saturated conditions. A 500-mL spill was introduced at the top of the flow cell from a small source area. It was observed that the DNAPL largely by-passed the silt layers but easily moved into the coarse sand layers. Residual DNAPL was formed in the medium-grained sand matrix. The DNAPL caused a distinct reduction of the capillary fringe. Most of the DNAPL ended up in a pool on top of the V-shaped fine sand. Through four treatments with moist air soil vapor extraction, most residual carbon tetrachloride was removed from the medium-grained matrix and the coarse sand layers. However, soil vapor extraction with moist air was not able to remove the carbon tetrachloride from the silt layers and the pool. Through a water table reduction and subsequent soil vapor extraction with dry air, the carbon tetrachloride in the silt layers and the pool was effectively removed. Based on gamma measurements and carbon tetrachloride vapor concentration data, it was estimated that after the final remediation treatment, almost 90% of the total mass was removed. Key Words: DNAPL; soil vapor extraction; desiccation; remediation
2005. "A comparison of models describing residual NAPL formation in the vadose zone." Vadose Zone Journal 4(1):163-174. Abstract A major shortcoming of multifluid flow simulators is the inability to predict the retention of nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL) in the vadose zone after long drainage periods. Recently, three theoretical models, Wipfler and Van Der Zee [J. Contam. Hydrol. 50 (2001); WVDZ model], Van Geel and Roy [J. Contam. Hydrol. 58 (2002); VGR model], and Lenhard et al. [J. Contam. Hydrol. (2004) In Press; LOD model] have been proposed for describing residual NAPL formation. The WVDZ model assumes a critical total liquid saturation below which all NAPL becomes residual. The VGR and LOD models are extensions of an existing hysteretic relative permeability – saturation – capillary pressure model and assume formation of residual NAPL during NAPL drainage and imbibition, respectively. In this paper, we compare model predictions against results of a series of static pressure cell experiments. We found no experimental evidence supporting the WVDZ concept of a critical total liquid saturation. The other two models yielded reasonable predictions. The VGR and LOD models were then incorporated into a multifluid flow simulator and simulations of two transient column experiments were conducted. Both models performed considerably better than simulations without considering the formation of residual NAPL, underwriting the importance of incorporating this process in simulators. Although the VGR and LOD models are based on different conceptual models, no clear performance differences could be observed when simulation results were compared against the transient experimental data.
2005. "Heterogeneous Chemistry of Individual Mineral Dust Particles with Nitric Acid. A Combined CCSEM/EDX, ESEM AND ICP-MS Study." Journal of Geophysical Research. D. (Atmospheres) 110(D10):D10208. Abstract The heterogeneous chemistry of individual dust particles from four authentic dust samples with gas-phase nitric acid was investigated in this study. Morphology and compositional changes of individual particles as they react with nitric acid were observed using conventional scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (SEM/EDX) and computer controlled SEM/EDX. Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM) was utilized to investigate the hygroscopic behavior of mineral dust particles reacted with nitric acid. Differences in the reactivity of mineral dust particles from these four different dust source regions with nitric acid were observed. Mineral dust from source regions containing high levels of calcium, namely China loess dust and Saudi coastal dust, were found to react to the greatest extent.
2003. "Numerical Modeling to Assess DNAPL Movement and Removal at the Scenic Site Operable Unit Near Baton Rouge, Louisiana: A Case Study." Soil & Sediment Contamination 12(6):901 - 926. Abstract Detailed three-dimensional multifluid flow modeling was conducted to assess movement and removal of dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) movement at a waste site in Louisiana. The site’s subsurface consists of several permeable zones separated by (semi) confining clays. In the upper subsurface, the two major permeable zones are, starting with the uppermost zone, the +40- and +20-MSL (mean sea level) zones. At the site, a total of 23,000 m3 of DNAPL was emplaced in an open waste pit between 1962 and 1974. In this period, considerable amounts of DNAPL moved into the subsurface. By 1974 a portion of the DNAPL was removed and the waste site was filled with low-permeability materials and closed. During this process, some of the DNAPL was mixed with the fill material and remained at the site. Between 1974 and 2000, no additional DNAPL recovery activities were implemented. In an effort to reduce the DNAPL source, organic liquid has been pumped through a timed-pumping scheme from a total of 7 wells starting in calendar year 2000. The recovery wells are screened in the lower part of the waste fill material. In site investigations, DNAPL has been encountered in the +40-MSL but not in the +20-MSL zone. The following questions are addressed: (1) Where has the DNAPL migrated vertically and laterally? (2) How much further is DNAPL expected to move in the next century? (3) How effective is the current DNAPL pumping in reducing the DNAPL source? The computational domains for the simulations were derived from 3-D interpolations of borehole logs using a geologic interpretation software (EarthvisionTM ) . The simulation results show that DNAPL primarily entered the subsurface in the period 1962 – 1974, when the waste site was operational. After 1974, the infiltration rates dropped dramatically as a result of the infilling of the waste pit. The simulation results indicate that DNAPL moved from the pit into the underlying +40-MSL zone through two contact zones at the west side of the pit. Lateral movement of the DNAPL body has been relatively slow as a result of the high viscosity and the rapidly decreasing driving force after the waste pit was filled in. For all simulations, lateral movement of DNAPL in the period 1962 - 2001 is predicted to be less than 60 m from the two contact areas, while additional movement in the next century is expected to be less than 30 m. No DNAPL is predicted to enter the +20-MSL zone, which agrees with site information. The simulations also clearly demonstrate the minimal effect of the current pumping scheme on source reduction and DNAPL movement.
2003. "Flow Behavior and Residual Saturation Formation of Liquid Carbon Tetrachloride in Unsaturated Heterogeneous Porous Media." Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 64(1-2):93-112. Abstract A side effect of in situ groundwater remediation techniques that operate by establishing reducing conditions within an aquifer is that anoxic water exits these zones, posing a potential risk to aquatic organisms inhabiting areas of groundwater discharge downgradient from the site. A number of processes have been identified that can attenuate an anoxic plume in an unconfined aquifer with a fluctuating water table. The hypothesis that water table fluctuations increase oxygen transfer from air to water, through enhanced exchange from entrapped air, is tested in an intermediate-scale, fluctuating water table experiment. A dual-energy gamma radiation system was used to measure water saturations while dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations were measured with flow-through oxygen microelectrodes. A hysteretic multifluid simulator was used to test whether the experimentally obtained water and entrapped air saturations, as well as DO concentrations, could be predicted using the assumptions of two-phase flow and equilibrium partitioning between the gas and the aqueous phases. The experimental results show that zones with entrapped air, formed during the imbibition portions of the experiment, were instrumental in re-oxygenation of the water in the zone of fluctuation. The fluctuating water table system also caused significant amounts of dissolved oxygen to be transported deeper into the flow cell. The simulator was able to predict water saturations, entrapped air saturations, and dissolved oxygen concentrations reasonably well.
2001. "In-situ oxidation of trichloroethene by permanganate: effects on porous medium hydraulic properties." Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 50(1-2):79-98.
2000. "Influence of Heterogeneity and Sampling Method on Aqueous Concentrations Associated with NAPL Dissolution." Environmental Science and Technology 34(17):3657-3664. Abstract Influence of Heterogeneity and Sampling Method on Aqueous Concentrations Associated with NAPL Dissolution
1999. "Partitioning tracer method for the in situ measurement of DNAPL saturation: influence of heterogeneity and sampling method." Environmental Science and Technology 33(22):4046-4053. Abstract An experimental investigation of the partitioning tracer method to detect and quantify dense nonaqueous phase liquids in a heterogeneous system.